1 Introduction
According to Strabo, the Acarnanians lived between the Ambracian Gulf and the Achelous River.
Strabo notes that the Achelous River was also called the Thoas River. [1]
Thoas is believed to be the son of Andraemon, who participated in the Trojan expedition. There is also a tradition that the river was called Achelous from the time of Alcmaeon, a contemporary of Thoas. [2]
In other words, the Aetolians who lived on the east side of the Achelous River probably called it the Thoas River, and the Acarnanians who lived on the west side called it the Achelous River.
The large amounts of sediment carried by the Achelous River were deposited at the river's mouth, and by Thucydides' time some islands were connected to the mainland. Thucydides predicted that in the near future all the islands of the archipelago would be connected by land. [3]
Pausanias notes that this prediction was wrong because no one lived in the Achelous River basin anymore. Pausanias seems to have believed that "mud from cultivated land flows into the sea and is deposited." [4]
2 Settlement from Laconia
2.1 Settlement of Teleboas
In 1390 BC, Teleboas, son of Therapne, daughter of Lelex, migrated from Therapne in Laconia to Acarnania. [5]
Aristotle tells us that in ancient times, western Acarnania was inhabited by Leleges and Teleboans. [6]
The settlers led by Teleboas were first called Leleges, but it is assumed that the people ruled by Teleboas' descendants came to be called Teleboans.
Leleges was named after Lelex, who migrated from Egypt to Peloponnesus with Danaus. The Lelex migrated from Laconia to Megara, and the inhabitants of those regions were called Leleges. [7]
2.2 Sons of Teleboas
Teleboas had 22 sons, some of whom lived in Leucas. Three generations after them, Oebalus, the son of Telon, lived near the Achelous River, so it is assumed that the Teleboans lived throughout Acarnania. [8]
Leucas, settled by the son of Teleboas, was not an island, but a peninsula. In 657 BC, Corinthians settled the area and separated it from the mainland, making Leucas an island. [9]
3 Amphitryon's Expedition
In 1277 BC, an expedition including Mycenaeans, Athenians, and Thebans led an expedition to the land of the Teleboans. [10]
3.1 Helius Colonization
The central figure in this expedition was Helius (or Heleus), son of Perseus. Helius had already built Helos in Argolis, but he planned an expedition in search of new lands. [11]
Helius asked for help from his brother Electryon and his nephew Amphitryon. Amphitryon invited Creon, his mother's brother, and Cephalus, son of Deion, who had fled from Thoricus in Attica to Thebes, to join the expedition. [12]
The expedition expelled the Teleboans from islands in the Ionian Sea west of Acarnania and colonized them. [13]
Helius settled the Echinades Islands. [14]
3.2 Cephalus Colonization
Cephalus colonized the largest island in the Ionian Sea and called it Cephallenia. [15]
Tradition has it that Cephalus killed Pandion's daughter Procris, was tried by the Areopagus, and was sentenced to exile. However, Cephalus was one of Aegeus' brothers-in-law who was exiled by the Athenian king Aegeus. Hyginus tells us that Cephalus, son of Deion, was king of the Athenians, but Cephalus was king of Thoricus of Attica. [16]
Thoricus was one of the twelve cities that Theseus, the son of Aegeus, brought together. [17]
Hyginus tells of Nisus, king of Megara, who many traditions say is the son of Pandion, as the son of Deion. [18]
Thus, Cephalus was the son of Pandion, king of Athens, also known as Deion (or Deioneus).
3.3 Expedition results
3.3.1 Amphitryon
During this expedition, Perseus' son Electryon and his sons were killed in a battle against the Teleboans. [19]
Electryon's daughter Alcmena and Electryon's son Licymnius, who remained in Mideia, became orphans.
Amphitryon called them to Thebes, and Amphitryon married Alcmena. [20]
Amphitryon dedicated the sword he had obtained in the battle against the Teleboans to the temple of Apollo Ismenias. [21]
3.3.2 Founding of Ithaca
The three sons of Pterelas, son of Deioneus, who lived in Cephallenia, Ithacus, Neritus, and Polyctor, were driven from the island by Cephalenus. They migrated to an island adjacent to the northeast of Cephallenia, founded Ithaca, and called the island Ithaca. [22]
Deioneus was the grandson of Teleboas and chieftain of the Teleboans who lived in Cephallenia. [23]
3.3.3 Marriage of Cephalus
Cephalus married Euryodeia and Arcesius (or Arcisius) was born. Euryodeia was the daughter of Pterelas and seems to have been a captive of Cephalus. [24]
Pterelas' ancestor was Teleboas, son of Therapne, who was probably the first Greek settler in Cephallenia. [25]
4 Settlement from Eleia
In 1244 BC, Phyleus, son of Augeas, from Elis of Eleia, settled in Dulichium. [26]
Dulichium also seems to refer to an island belonging to the Echinades, as reported by Homer and Strabo. [27]
However, for the following reasons, it is assumed that Dulichium, where Phyleus moved from Elis, was located in Cephallenia.
1) Pausanias tells us that the Paleis of Cephallenia dedicated a statue of Timoptolis, son of Lampis of Elean, to Olympia. [28]
2) Pausanias also tells us that in ancient times the Paleans were called Dulichians. [29]
Therefore, it is assumed that Dulichium of Cephallenia was the place where Phyleus, the son of Augeas, migrated.
The contact between Cephalus and Phyleus, who were native to Cephallenia, is unknown, and it is thought that Phyleus was searching for a suitable place and chose Cephallenia as his migration destination.
5 Emigration from Sicily
In 1240 BC, the Pelasgians from Sicily migrated to Acarnania, chased by the Sicels who had invaded the island from the Italian peninsula. [30]
These Pelasgians were forced out of Thessaly in 1390 BC and migrated to the Italian peninsula, where they lived in Regis Villa near Rome. However, in 1300 BC, they were chased by the Tyrrhenians who migrated from Lydia and migrated to Sicily. [31]
6 Heracles' Expedition
In 1237 BC, an expedition led by Heracles went to Thesprotia. [32]
6.1 Augeas's son Phyleus's participating in an expedition
Shortly before this, Heracles had fought Augeas of Elis and captured the town. [33]
At that time, Heracles granted the wishes of Augeas's eldest son, Phyleus, and treated Augeas with leniency. [34]
To repay this favor, Phyleus led the Dulichians from Dulichium in Cephallenia to join Heracles' expedition. [35]
Phyleus was given a breastplate by Euphetes, who ruled near Ephyra in Thesprotia. Euphetes is presumed to have been an adversary of Phyleus, ruler of Ephyra. [36]
6.2 Helius's son Taphius's participating in an expedition
Taphius joined the expedition in return for his father Helius being able to colonize the Echinades with the help of Heracles' father Amphitryon. [37]
Taphius migrated northwest from the Echinades and founded Taphos, which became known as Taphos. [38]
6.3 Cephalus's son Arcesius (or Arcisius)'s participating in an expedition
Arcesius, like Taphius, joined the expedition to repay a debt to his father Amphitryon of Heracles and extended his residence from Cephallenia to Ithaca. [39]
At that time Cephalus married Euryodeia, daughter of Pterelas of Teleboan, and they had a son, Arcesius. [40]
Strabo reports that Ithaca and Taphos residents are close. [41]
Because the inhabitants of these islands cooperated together in Heracles' expedition, and with the help of Heracles' father Amphitryon, both were able to settle here.
6.4 Oebalus's son Icarius's participating in an expedition
Icarius, son of Oebalus, took part in this expedition and settled Acarnania from Laconia. [42]
Icarius' two sons, Leucadius and Alyzeus, founded the towns named after them in Acarnania. [43]
Icarius joined the expedition at Calydon, and on the way met Tyndareus at Pleuron and persuaded him to return to Lacedaemon. Perileos (or Perilaus), the son of Icarius, remained in Sparta, but he was a minor. [44]
Tyndareus migrated from Aetolia to Sparta. [45]
Icarius married Polycaste (or Polyboea), the daughter of Lygaeus, whom he had taken prisoner in a battle against the Teleboans. [46]
Lygaeus is thought to be the brother of Oebalus, son of Telon, who was chased by this expedition and immigrated to Italy. [47]
Icarius and Polycaste had a daughter, Penelope, who became the wife of Odysseus. [48]
6.5 Emigration to Italy
Oebalus, son of Telon, who lived near the river Achelous, led the Teleboans from Acarnania to Capreae (near Neapolis) on the west coast of the Italian peninsula. [49]
6.6 Marriage to Corinth
Also participating in this expedition was Ornytion, son of Sisyphus of Corinth, who married Peirene, daughter of Oebalus, son of Telon. [50]
Leches and Cenchrias, from whom the two outer ports of Corinth, Lechaeum on the Corinthian gulf and Cenchreae on the Saronic gulf, are named, were the sons of Ornytion and Peirene. [51]
7 Marriage from Parnassus
In 1236 BC, Laertes, son of Arcesius, took as his wife Anticlia, daughter of Autolycus, who lived near Mount Parnassus. [52]
Blood ties made it possible for Laertes to marry the daughter, who lived near Mount Parnassus, far from Ithaca, where Laertes lived.
The father of Cephalus, the father of Arcesius, the father of Laertes, was Pandion, the eighth king of Athens.
The father of Philonis (or Chione), the mother of Autolycus, the father Anticlia was also Pandion.
In other words, Laertes and Anticlia were second cousins.
A son, Odysseus, was born to Laertes and Anticlia. [53]
7.1 Father of Odysseus
Plutarch, a writer of the early 2nd century AD, tells us that Odysseus' father was Sisyphus, not Laertes. [54]
Plutarch's references appear to have been the tragic poets Euripides and Sophocles of the 5th century BC. [55]
Corinth and Athens were friends, but around 459 BC, Corinth and Athens became enemies after Megara, a colony of Corinth, became an ally with Athens. It was the time of Euripides and Sophocles of Athens. [56]
The Athenian poets appear to have tried to discredit their enemy Corinth by making Odysseus' father Sisyphus, whom Homer tells of as Corinth's villain. [57]
However, Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, son of Bellerophontes, son of Glaucus, son of Sisyphus, lived during the Trojan War. [58]
If Odysseus is the son of Sisyphus, then he lived three generations before the Trojan War.
8 Emigration to Echinades
In 1225 BC, Meges, son of Phyleus, emigrated from Cephallenia to the Echinades, which had become sparsely populated by Taphius, son of Helius. Meges settled on the largest island of the archipelago and called it his homeland, Dulichium. [59]
9 Nericus Strategy
In 1220 BC, Arcesius' son Laertes led the Cephallenians to capture Nericus on the Leucas Peninsula. [60]
In Nericus lived the descendants of the sons of Teleboas, son of Therapne. [61]
10 Alcmaeon's Expedition
In 1204 BC, Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus, led an expedition from Argos to Acarnania. [62]
10.1 Purpose of the expedition
10.1.1 False lore
The 4th century BC historian Ephorus of Cyme tells us that Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus, joined forces with Diomedes, son of Tydeus, to avenge Oeneus and then advanced into Acarnania. [63]
However, Alcmaeon's mother Hypermnestra was the daughter of Thestius of Pleuron, and it is unlikely that Alcmaeon participated in battles against his kin. [64]
Hygnius tells us that Sthenelus, son of Capaneus, assisted Diomedes in his expedition. Sthenelus was a close friend of Diomedes, and it was Sthenelus, not Alcmaeon, who assisted Diomedes in his expeditions. [65]
10.1.2 Real purpose
The purpose of Alcmaeon's expedition to Acarnania seems to have been as follows.
At that time, Alcmaeon had taken prisoners with him, including Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, whom he had captured in Epigoni's attack on Thebes. [66]
Later, some of the prisoners, including Manto, migrated to Asia Minor. [67]
However, it is assumed that the first place the captives desired to migrate to was Illyria, where their king, Laodamas, son of Eteocles, had settled. [68]
Alcmaeon appears to have gone on an expedition to Illyria, where the prisoners desired to go.
10.2 Founding of Astacus
Once the expedition crossed the Achelous River and entered Acarnania, some of Alcmaeon's captives, wishing to colonize the land, settled there and founded Astacus. Alternatively, Astacus may have been founded as a colony after the founding of Amphilochian Argos. [69]
Astacus was the name of the Sparti of Thebes, and was probably named by a descendant of Astacus who was among the captives. [70]
10.3 Founding of Amphilochian Argos
Alcmaeon founded Argos (later Amphilochian Argos) near the Ambracian Gulf. [71]
It is believed that Alcmaeon decided that it would be a suitable place to settle and founded the town after seeing off the prisoners heading for Illyria. Alternatively, the town may have been founded around prisoners who gave up on going to Illyria.
It is assumed that the first inhabitants of Amphilochian Argos included the Gephyraeans (Phoenicians). In 430 BC, the Amphilochians, who lived together with the Ambracians, are said to have been the first to use Greek. [72]
10.4 About Gephyraeans
In 1420 BC, the Gephyraeans migrated with Cadmus from Sidon in Phoenicia to Boeotia. [73]
The Gephyraeans settled in eastern Boeotia, and the region was called Gephyra (later Tanagra). [74]
Praxithea, daughter of Diogenia, daughter of Cephisus, leader of the Gephyraeans, married Erechtheus, the sixth king of Athens. [75]
In 1415 BC, Eumolpus invaded Attica, and the Athenians took refuge with the Gephyraeans, who lived around Tanagra, and the Gephyraeans accepted the Athenians. The marriage of Erechtheus and Praxithea was predicated on this event. [76]
The Gephyraeans, who migrated to Athens with Praxithea, taught the Athenians the Phoenician letters, and the Athenians invented the Pelasgic letters based on them. [77]
The tomb of Orion, the son of Hyrieus, who became a constellation, is located at Tanagra, and it is assumed that the Gephyraeans passed on to the Greeks the knowledge of the constellations they had acquired from the Babilonians. [78]
In 1204 BC, the Gephyraeans, captured during Epigoni's attack on Thebes, went on an expedition to Acarnania with Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus. [79]
Some of the Gephyraeans founded Astacus near the mouth of the Achelous River. [80]
Some of the Gephyraeans also settled in the Amphilochian Argos, which Alcmaeon built near the Ambracian Gulf. [81]
In 1200 BC, the Gephyraeans living around Tanagra fled to Athens, pursued by Poemander, the grandson of Poemander, son of Chaeresilaus. The Athenians accepted the Gephyraeans as citizens. [82]
In 1085 BC, the Gephyraeans of the Eretria district of Athens migrated to Euboea and founded Eretria. [83]
In 514 BC Hipparchus, brother of Hippias, tyrant of Athens, was assassinated by Aristogiton and Harmodius. [84]
Aristogiton and Harmodius were Gephyraeans from Aphidna. [85]
The Gephyraeans migrated from Eretria in Euboea and lived in Aphidna. [86]
In 434 BC, the Athenians led by Doedalsus colonized Bithynia. [87]
Bithynia was a town founded by the Megarians led by Zypoetes in 712 BC. [88]
The inhabitants of the town founded by Zypoetes, suffering from attacks from surrounding tribes, asked Athens to send a colony, and they cohabited with the Athenians. [89]
The Athenians named the town Astacus, after the name of Sparti of Thebes. [90]
Doedalsus, the leader of the Athenians, is presumed to have been a descendant of Astacus, that is, a Gephyraean. [91]
10.5 Emigration of Amphilochus
Thucydides tells us that Amphilochus took part in the construction of the Amphilochian Argos after taking part in the Trojan expedition. [92]
However, it is assumed that Amphilochus did not participate in the Trojan expedition for the following reasons.
1) Amphilochus, together with his brother Alcmaeon, took part in Epigoni's attack on Thebes. [93]
Amphilochus appears to have taken part in the construction of the town of Alcmaeon, which took place shortly thereafter.
2) Legend has it that Alcmaeon refused Agamemnon's invitation to join the expedition to Troy. [94]
Amphilochus does not seem to have been the only one to take part in the expedition that Alcmaeon refused.
3) Amphilochus does not appear in Homer's works.
4) In Homer's Catalogue of Ships, there are three names as generals of Argos. [95]
At that time there were three royal houses in Argos, so the names of the three should be the names of the representatives of each royal house.
However, the named Sthenelus, son of Capaneus, is a representative of the Anaxagoras royal family.
Euryalus, the son of Mecisteus, was a member of the royal family of Bias, and Diomedes was also a representative of the royal family of Bias. Diomedes was a substitute for Cyanippus, the son of Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus, who had not yet reached the age of warriors.
If Amphilochus had participated in the Troy expedition, he would have been named as a representative of the Melampus royal family, one of the three Argos royal families.
5) Alcmaeon is given the names of his three wives and many children. However, the details of Amphilochus's wife and children are unknown, and he seems to have emigrated from Argos to a remote area at a young age.
6) Amphilochus is confused in many sources with his brother Alcmaeon and Manto's son Amphilochus, who was born at Colophon and died at Mallus in Cilicia.
11 Marriage from Pleuron
In 1202 BC, Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus, married Callirhoe, daughter of Achelous of Pleuron, and they had two sons, Acarnan and Amphoterus. [96]
Hypermnestra, wife of Oecles, father of Amphiaraus, father of Alcmaeon, was a descendant of Pleuron, son of Aetolus. Callirhoe's maternal ancestors were also Pleuron.
12 Trojan War Era
Meges, son of Phyleus, led the people of Dulichium and Echinades on an expedition to Troy. [97]
Also, under Meges were the people of Cyllene, the outer port of Elis. [98]
Odysseus, son of Laertes, led the people of Ithaca, the surrounding islands, and the mainland on an expedition to Troy. [99]
13 Emigration to Boeotia
In 1188 BC, the Pelasgians, who had migrated from Sicily and lived in Acarnania, migrated to Boeotia and occupied Coroneia. [100]
The inhabitants of Coroneia, chased by the Pelasgians, migrated to Arne in Thessaly. [101]
14 Emigration from Amphilochian Argos
People from Amphilochian Argos whose ancestors were from Argos migrated elsewhere and founded new towns. From this time on, it is assumed that no one in Amphilochian Argos spoke Greek. [102]
14.1 Founding of Anaktorion
In 1180 BC, Acarnan, son of Alcmaeon, migrated from the Amphilochian Argos to the southern coast of the Ambracian Gulf and founded Anaktorion. [103]
14.2 Founding of Phoetiae
In 1175 BC, Phoetius, son of Alcmaeon, migrated from Amphilochian Argos to the vicinity of Astacus and founded Phoetiae. [104]
15 Rise and Fall of Oeniadae
In 1105 BC, the Heracleidae returned to the Peloponnesus peninsula, and the Aetolians, whose ancestral homeland was Elis, migrated to Elis led by Oxylus, son of Haemon. [105]
Those who remained in Calydon and Pleuron were those who had migrated from Amphissa with Thoas, and those who had migrated from the Italian peninsula with Amphinomus, son of Diomedes.
Afterwards a conflict arose between the two, and the descendants of Diomedes migrated to the west side of the Achelous River and founded the Oeniadae. The descendants of Diomedes called themselves Oeniadae and became part of the Acarnanians rather than the Aetolians. [106]
The inhabitants of Calydon and Pleuron called themselves Aeolians to distinguish them from other Aetolians. [107]
In 331 BC, Oeniadae was attacked by the Aetolians, who destroyed the town and expelled its inhabitants. [108]
These Aetolians appear to be the Curetes, who live on the east side of the Achelous River. Curetes is found in the name of the race of Roman Aetolians listed by Strabon. [109]
This attack by the Curetes appears to have been in response to a revolt against Macedonia led by Spartan king Agis III. [110]
In 324 BC, Alexander the Great issued the decree for the recall of the exiles, which was strongly opposed by the Aetolians, who had expelled the Oeniadae and made them their own territory. The Aetolians became the spearhead of the anti-Macedonian movement, along with the Athenians, who had distributed Samos to their citizens. [111]
The name Oeniadae seems to have remained in the Roman period, but details about its inhabitants are unknown.
16 Peloponnesian War Era
In 459 BC, the Messenians, who were besieged by the Spartans and holed up on Mount Ithome, left Messenia and migrated to Naupactus in the Ozolian Locris. [112]
Naupactus was acquired by the Athenians, who drove out the Ozolian Locrians, due to their hatred of the Spartans, and offered it to the Messenians. [113]
The Messenians of Naupactus, seeking to repay the Athenians' favor, laid siege to the Oeniadae, which were hostile to the Athenians, and, after a truce, evacuated the inhabitants. [114]
Driven from their homes, the Oeniadae besieged the town with other Acarnanians and recaptured it eight months later.
In 455 BC, Pericles of Athens recruited the Acarnanians, except for the Oeniadae, and the following year he besieged Oeniadae with the Aetolians, but was unable to capture it. [115]
In 424 BC, the Athenians formed the Acarnanian League with the last remaining unaffiliated Oeniadae. [116]
In 405 BC, the Spartans defeated the Athenians at the Battle of Aegospotami and expelled the Messenians from Naupactus. [117]
In 389 BC, the Achaeans of Calydon, oppressed by the Athenians allied with the Acarnanians and Boeotians, reportedly requested aid from the Spartans. [118]
It is likely that the Spartans, who expelled the Messenians from Naupactus in 405 BC, also expelled the inhabitants of Calydon and gave it to the Achaeans. [119]
17 Genealogy of the Prophets of Acarnania
17.1 Carnus
In 1115 BC, Carnus, a seer from Acarnania, appeared in Naupactus, where the Heracleidae were building ships to sail to Peloponnesus. Carnus was killed by Hippotes, son of Phylas, one of the Heracleidae. [120]
Carnus is presumed to be a grandson of Alcmaeon, son of Amphiaraus.
17.2 The seer who taught Hesiod the art of prophecy
Hesiod learned the art of divination from a seer of Acarnania. [121]
Hesiod stayed at Naupactus and was killed the next day by Ganyctor's sons at Oineon, about 15 km to the east. [122]
Hesiod may have been on his way back from Acarnania to Boeotia at this time.
17.3 Megistias
In 480 BC, Megistias, a seer from Acarnania, was killed in battle with Leonidas, king of Sparta, against the Persians at Thermopylae. [123]
Simonides, son of Leoprepes, poet of Ceos, who was a close friend of Megistias, composed the epitaph for Megistias. [124]
Megistias was a descendant of Melampus, and the line of prophets that began with Melampus lasted for at least 800 years. [125]
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