1. Introduction
In the summer of 338 BC, the kingdom of Macedonia, which arose in the northern part of Greece, defeated the allied forces of Greece at the Battle of Chaeronea, and became the leader of the Corinth alliance, praising its hegemony over the Greek world. However, in the summer of 336 BC, Philip II was assassinated and his son Alexandros became king of Macedonia. Alexandros defeated the surrounding tribes that threatened the security of the kingdom one after another, and tried to solidify the foundation of his rule. In the course of his expedition, he utterly destroyed Thebes, who had rebelled against Macedonia, and made an example to the Greek Polis, which had lost their power in the past. In the spring of 334 BC, Alexandros, now the leader of the Corinth League, embarked on an expedition to the east, a long-cherished dream of many Greeks, including his father, Philip.
The Battle of Issus, the first battle between Darius III of Achaemenid Persia at the time and Alexander III, who led the allied forces of Greece, is described in many books, but one thing that almost agrees is that it was an "unprecedented crossing", caused by chance, due to the advance towards the enemy, with the result that the army of Darius appeared behind the army of Alexandros. However, a closer look at ancient sources reveals that Alexander the Great's meticulous calculations lie behind it.
The surviving sources on the Battle of Issus date from the Roman period and are attributed to six historians. Polybius (2nd century BC), Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), Curtius Rufus (Late 1st century AD), Flavius Arrianus (First half of 2nd century AD), Plutarch (First half of 2nd century AD) and Junianus Justinus (3rd century AD). All of them are based on primary historical materials left by Aristoboulos, who participated in Alexander the Great's expedition to the east as an engineer, and Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, who directly witnessed the Battle of Issus. However, Justinus only wrote an excerpt based on the "History of Philip" written by Pompeius Trogus, an ancient Roman historian of the late 1st century BC, extracting only the parts that interest him, but Issus there are very few excerpts in the battle part, which is very disappointing.
In order to estimate the progress up to the battle with specific dates, I would like to set two Basis Dates.
The first is the arrival date of Alexandros in Tarsos, the center of the Cilicia region.
The day Alexandros arrived at Tarsos was undoubtedly mid-summer, although it was not the hottest on record, as "it was summer and the coast of Cilicia was particularly hot due to the heat of the sun." [1]
The highest temperature at Tarsos since modern meteorological observations began was 42°C, observed for three days between July 29th and August 6th. Assuming that August 2nd, which is in the middle of this date, is the date of arrival of Alexandros in Tarsos, I would like to set it as the Basis Date 1.
The second is the date of the Battle of Issus.
The battle is said to have taken place in "the month Maimaoterion, when Nicostratus was archon of the Athenians", mid-October to mid-November 333 BC in the present calendar year. [2]
It is also recorded that it was snowing when Parmenion seized the goods sent by Darius' army to Damaskos. [3]
Damaskos has an average maximum temperature of 17°C and an average minimum temperature of 2°C in mid-November. It is about 385 km from Issus to Damaskos. If the Parmenion had been accompanied by infantry, it would have taken 15 days to march every day. Considering this, the march was completely halted to request reinforcements, so it is thought that it took about the same number of days. [4]
Therefore, I would like to presume that the date of the battle was November 1st, and use it as the Basis Date 2.
2. Memnon's death from illness
After crossing the Hellespontus Strait, Alexandros joined Parmenion, who had been sent ahead by his father Philip with an army of at least 10,000 men in the spring of 336 B.C., in the battle of the Granikos River, where he defeated the Persian Empire's Asia Minor satraps allied army. [5].
Alexandros then seized the goods stockpiled at Sardeis in Lydia, where the governorate of Asia Minor was located, secured money for the expedition, which was said to last only 30 days at the time of the expedition's departure, captured the Persian bases one after another, and winterized at Gordion [6].
The reason for not attacking Cilicia immediately to the south was that Memnon, a Persian mercenary captain, was leading a navy to the mainland Greece, and Orontobates, satrap of Karia, was rallying the Persian forces at Halikarnassos, which had been chased from various parts of Greece, to put up a fierce resistance. The Persian forces were chased from various parts of the country to Halikarnassos. [7].
Another reason was that he was waiting to join the Parmenion troops they had sent to Phrygia and to arrive with the newlyweds they had sent home temporarily from Karia to Macedonia and the new recruits who were to come with them. [8].
However, in the spring of 333 B.C., when the Orontobates returned with their newly recruited cavalry and infantry, despite continued resistance, they began a campaign to mop up the remaining Persian forces in the Kappadokia region east of the Halys River. [9].
Memnon, who had positioned Halikarnassos as the last stronghold for the defense of Asia Minor and was engaged in an all-out resistance campaign, incinerated the city before it fell into the hands of Alexandros' forces and moved his base to a surrounding fortress [10]. Leaving resistance on land to the Orontobates, Memnon himself became a man-at-arms, taking a force of mercenaries with him into the fleet. Memnon, who had been appointed fleet commander by Darius earlier, seized the islands that served as staging posts for Alexandros' forces' sea transport, cutting off logistical routes and forcing the Greece mercenary force to land on the Greece mainland and target Macedonia's home country, forcing Alexandros, the plan was to force Alexandros to return home. [11]
However, during the time it took to capture Mitylene on Lesbos, Memnon himself, who was an integral part of this operation, died of illness. [12].
Fate has always smiled on Alexandros, but never more than on this occasion was Alexandros pleased. If Memnon's plan had been carried out, the battle that would erupt two years later between Agis, King of Sparta, and Antipatros, commander of Macedonia's detachment, would have been fought earlier, with twice as many men on Agis' side, and Antipatros would have been defeated. Antipatros was defeated and Alexandros would have been forced to return home in a hurry. [13].
The Agis forces at this time numbered 20,000 infantry, including 8,000 Greece mercenaries, and 2,000 cavalry. [14].
Antipatros, on the other hand, opposes with no less than 40,000 men, and Agis is killed in battle. [15].
The date of this Memnon's death is unknown, but it was reported to Alexandros that he was active in the provinces of Pamphylia and Kappadokia. [16]
The death of the commander-in-chief would have been a great loss to his own army, so it was usually kept secret and should not have reached Alexandros immediately. Knowing this, however, Alexandros advanced to Cilicia and arrived at Tarsos on the Basis Date 1. From Memnon's death until it reaches Alexandros and reaches Tarsos, we estimate 13 days, and we estimate Memnon's death as July 20, 333 B.C. This shall be the Basis Date 0.
It took 3 days for Memnon's death to be communicated to those of Alexandros' army who were active around Lesbos, 4 days for the courier to deliver it to Alexandros near Kappadokia, and 6 days for the march to reach Tarsos.
3. Darius' resolution
The news of Memnon's death was delivered to Darius on July 30, considered ten days after the Basis Date 0. At that time, the "Royal Road" from Sardeis to Kappadokia was under control by Alexandros' forces, but the post station east of Cilicia would have been in good condition and functioning. Of the 111 post stations, 63 post stations functioned as relay races. [17]
If it worked perfectly, it would have taken 7 days in total, so the usable part at that time was 4 days from Cilicia's inn station. Even if the messenger was dispatched immediately after Memnon's death from disease, it took six days for the messenger to arrive from Lesbos Island to the post station in Cilicia, since the Asia Minor area was hostile territory. It would have been possible to gallop by sea along the Euphrates River by sea without using the "Royal Road", but it would have taken many more days.
There is no record of where Darius received the news of Memnon's death, but it is believed to have been at Susa. In the midst of the summer heat, we would normally have been in Ekbatana, the summer capital. [18]
Plutarch states that Darius marched from Susa, and may have been at Susa or beyond at Persepolis or Ekbatana.
However, if Darius was in a place other than Susa, considering the number of march days, etc., it will not be in time for the army's departure from Babylon.
The "Royal Road" was constructed from Sardeis to Susa, and Susa was the capital of the Persian empire that governed government affairs.
Darius debated with his aides at Susa whether to continue with Memnon's campaign or to step out and fight the decisive battle himself, the latter being adopted. [19]
In the 390s BC, King Agesilaos of Sparta, during his expedition to Asia Minor, caused a conflict in his home country by taking over and forced him to return home. However, this time the Greek Polis did not have the strength to fight, and each Polis was taken hostage by the Eastern Expeditionary Army, so it was probably not possible to bribe them. [20]
Also, without Memnon, it would not have been possible to deal with Antipatros, the homeland of Macedonia. Also, even with Memnon in command, it was probably impossible for a force without cavalry to attack the enemy and destroy them irretrievably.
Therefore, it is presumed that the contents of Darius' instruction were as follows.
(1) Pharnabazos, son of Artabazos, will be the commander of the fleet. [21]
(2) Pharnabazos to continue the blockade operation with Autophradates. [22]
(3) Pharnabazos entrust Thymondas with a mercenary force. [23]
Pharnabazos entrusted the mercenaries who were besieging Lesbos to Thymondas, son of Mentor, who was in Lycia at the time, and returned to Lesbos again. [24]
Thymondas assembled a force of Greek mercenaries who were resisting the remnants of Alexandros' army near Lycia and sailed south with his fleet, landing at Tripolis in Phenicia. [25]
(4) Thymondas to land a mercenary force and rendezvous with the main force at Sochoi. [26]
As for the location of Sochoi, it is in the Assyria region and is only known to be about two days away from the Syrian Gates, but it seems to be halfway between the Syrian Gates and Aleppo. [27]
To stray far from this ancient highway and await the forces of Alexandros would be dangerous enough, and the speed of the forces of Alexandros would have made it possible to storm Babylon. South of Sochoi there was such a fertile country that Seleukos later fed his army with 500 war elephants, which would have provided sufficient food for Darius' army. [28]
(5) All the nations of the empire must lead their forces to the outskirts of Babylon.
The Bactrians, Sogdianians, the inhabitants of Red Sea (Indians), etc. did not arrive in time for the meeting, but judging from the fact that they were late and did not rush to the meeting, it seems that for some reason they sped up their departure well before the deadline for the meeting. [29]
If the main unit had departed about a week earlier, it would have been possible to join them at Sochoi, so it is presumed that the main unit departed more than two weeks earlier than the scheduled departure date.
At the convocation of Gaugamela two years later, the Bactrians and others had gathered at Babylon earlier than many other races, and this may have played a role. [30]
(6) Syrian troops hold down the Syrian Gates and stop the enemy from entering.
After the Battle of Issus, when Parmenion went to Damaskos to take over the goods, it is reported that the Syrian satrap had already returned, and it seems that once the outcome of the Battle of Issus was known, he had quickly fled back. [31]
Syria's forces were so large that Parmenion, alarmed by the number of enemies, tried to call in reinforcements. At the time of Cyrus the Younger's rebellion, Abrocomas, the satrap of Phoenicia, reportedly commanded an army of 300,000 men, no doubt a considerable number of them. [32]
(7) The Egyptian unit should wait for the arrival of the main unit before Sochoi.
There are no Egyptian ethnic names for the Babylon congregation, which Curtius describes in detail. [33]
However, the Persian war dead at Issus included the name of the Egyptian satrap Sabaces, and it is believed that Egyptian troops were also involved in the battle at Issus. [34]
4. Alexandros' foray into Cilicia and Parmenion's Starting for the Syrian Gates
Encouraged by the news of Memnon's death, Alexandros decided to head south with the main force.
To reach the Cilicia region in the southern part of the Asia Minor, his army cannot go south unless it crosses the Cilician gates (about 1,300m above sea level) in the Tauros Mountains. In 401 BC Cyrus the Younger's forces also passed through here. Xenophon describes the barrier here as "allowable for wagons, but terribly steep, and impossible for an army to pass if blocked by the enemy." [35]
The length of the barrier was about 20 stadia (about 3.7 km), and the castle wall extended from the steep mountainside to block the road, and there were gates in several places. [36]
With the main force waiting in front of the gate with Parmenion, a light force led by Alexandros himself storms the gate. The garrison of Arsames, the satrap of Cilicia, abandons the gates without a fight, and Alexandros leads his entire army across the Cilician gates the next morning, but hears that Arsames intends to destroy Tarsos and withdraw with light troops and hastened to Tarsos. [37]
Alexandros arrived at Tarsos after a two-day journey. He fell ill at this time from exhaustion and bathing in the cool Kydnos River during the hottest part of summer. [38]
The name of the disease is presumed to be acute pneumonia or malaria fever. He crossed the gate at dawn and arrived at Tarsos during the hottest time of the day. The distance he ran down in about 8 hours was 500 stadia (about 92.5 km). [39]
Next, of Parmenion's departure to the Syrian Gates, only Arrianus tells us that it was shortly before Alexandros' departure from Tarsos. [40]
However, it is said that Alexandros, who was battling an illness in Tarsos, received a letter from Parmenion, who was supposed to be in Tarsos, telling him to beware of the doctor Philip. Plutarch says it came from "the camp", Justinus says it came from "Kappadokia". [41]
However, only Curtius writes from the "starting pitcher", and it is presumed that Parmenion was made to start before Alexandros fell ill. [42]
According to Curtius, Parmenion was dispatched on the day of his arrival in Tarsos to stop the Scorched Earth Plan of Arsames, satrap of Cilicia. It is believed that this was the starting line-up, and that troops were later dispatched one after another.
Giving the date of Parmenion's departure to shortly before Alexandros's departure from Tarsos seems too lenient to an enemy who might come at any moment.
Arrianus' account of the timing of the advance is unreliable, but he states that the forces that started with Parmenion were 17,500 Greek allied infantry, 2,300 Greek mercenaries, 7,000 Thracians under Sitarces and 1,850 Thessalian cavalry. [43]
26,800 infantry, 1,850 cavalry, totaling 28,650. A whopping 60% of the forces of Alexandros who crossed the Cilician gates.
Before the Syrian Gates, 5 Parasangs (about 27.6 km) from Issus, there was a defile called "Pillar of Jonah". The barrier was a cliff on the east side and Issus Bay on the west side, and was usually guarded by the garrison of the satrap of Cilicia on the north side and the garrison under the direct control of the Great King on the south side, making it difficult to pass. [44]
However, while in Gordion, a rebuilt fleet was nearby for logistical support under orders from Alexandros. [45]
Parmenion's advance force is presumed to have passed without resistance in the same way that Cyrus the Younger had passed through the defile. [46]
Parmenion's advance forces moved from the present-day city of Iskenderun on the Gulf of Issus to the Syrian Gates, a defile in the Amanos Mountains, where they repelled the Persian garrison. This barrier was 3 stadia (about 555 m) long, and it was possible to block the road with a retractable gate attached to the castle wall. [47]
It is presumed that the other side of the barrier was already guarded by an army led by the Syrian satrap. [48]
It seems that Parmenion's advance force did not need to dare to break through the barrier, and was only tasked to prevent Darius' army from advancing to the sea side.
Parmenion is believed to have arrived at the Syrian Gates on August 11th.
From Tarsos to the gates, it would have taken nine days at normal marching speed, but it would have taken about the same number of days when considering the infantry's march through the enemy and the rapidity of the task.
5. Babylon Departure of Darius
The date when Darius ordered the nations of the empire to assemble at Babylon is unknown. Darius, however, would not have waited for the arrival of the Indian war elephants who had taken part in the Battle of Gaugamela, but would have at least expected the strength of the Baktria cavalry, the strongest of the Persian army.
It is therefore presumed that the date of assembly ordered by Darius was a deadline that allowed for the arrival of the Baktria cavalry force.
The distance between Susa and Baktria is about 1,510 km.
Even with the Persian messenger system, the fastest in the world at the time, it would have taken nine days for the convocation order to reach Baktria. [49]
At the Battle of Gaugamela, 8,000 Baktrian cavalry are involved. [50]
After receiving the order, it took seven days to muster troops from various parts of the Baktria region.
The distance between Baktria and Babylon is about 1,875km. 38 days from Baktria to Babylon. A total of 54 days is required. In order to gather troops from Massagetai and India, which are far from Baktria, more than two months had to be expected from the call-up decision on July 30th.
Therefore, it is presumed that the convocation date for Babylon was the end of September.
However, Darius was forced to leave before the due date for some circumstances. The "circumstances" may have been the news of Alexandros' sudden illness, but it was before the crossing of Euphrates and after leaving Babylon that Darius received the news. [51]
The "circumstances" seem to have been the news that the Parmenion's advance troops contacted the garrison under the direct control of the Syrian Gates, and that the Alexandros army would directly attack Mesopotamia. While using Sochoi as a rallying point, they had to intercept the Alexandros army in front of it. According to the news from the garrison under the direct control of the Great King of the Syrian Gates, it is presumed that they hurriedly departed Babylon around August 21st.
When Darius left Babylon, he had 250,000 infantry and 62,200 cavalry.
He imitated Xerxes at the time of the invasion of Greece, preparing a fenced area for 10,000 people, likening it to a huge box, putting them in order and counting them before leaving. [52]
Curtius mentions that this was joined by 30,000 Greek mercenaries, but this could be interpreted as a later addition rather than at the time of departure, probably the mercenary force that Thymondas brought to Sochoi.
Curtius records in detail the situation at the time of Babylon's departure, but I cannot find any national troops in it. [53]
Presumably, in anticipation of an enemy encounter, he sent them several days ahead as a deterrent and scout. In fact, considering the lines of the march, the army was so large that even if the front group left at dawn, the last group would not leave until after sunset. They should have sent out the whole army in several days. As it took five days to cross the Euphrates, he may have marched with his whole force in five divisions. [54]
When Babylon departed, they marched at a slightly faster pace, but while they were marching, word came that Alexandros was suddenly ill, and Darius hurried his army. It is about 670km from Babylon to Thapsakos, the river crossing point. In a normal march, it would take 28 days, but in consideration of the major pauses along the way and the activities of the enemy, it will take 37 days to reach the river crossing point, and the river crossing will be completed on September 28th. Darius received news of Alexandros' sudden illness not immediately after Babylon's departure, but near the river crossing on September 23rd. Sochoi arrival will be October 9th.
6. Alexandros' Departure from Tarsos and the Cilicia Trachea Suppression Operation
Alexandros rested his army at Tarsos and was himself recuperating from his illness, while Parmenion's advance troops watched the approach of Darius' army. And when his recuperation was over, he carried out a campaign against Cilicia Trachea.
He may have been asked by the remnants of Halikarnassos to subjugate the neighboring tribes of Pisidia and Lycia, who came to the enemy's aid, from the Cilicia side. Alternatively, it may have been to pacify an area that he himself had left untouched in the previous autumn and winter pacification operations.
Leaving Tarsos, Alexandros reached the town of Soloi, a strategic point on the plain Cilicia, by way of Anchialos. [55]
The mountains punitive force consisted of 3 units of the Macedonian infantry, or 4,500 heavy infantry troops called Pezhetairoi (fellow infantry soldiers). It was an infantry unit of 5,500 soldiers, consisting of 500 all archers and 500 Agrianes. On the other hand, the troops that remained in Soloi consisted of 3,000 soldiers of the Guards Infantry, called Hypaspists (holding a shield), 7,324 of the rest of the Pezhetairoi (fellow infantry), 2,050 of the cavalry, called Hetairoi (fellow cavalry), 400 of the Greek Union cavalry, 1,200 of the Thrace cavalry, 10,324 of the infantry, 3,650 of the cavalry, a total of 13,974.
The mountains punitive force left Soloi and advanced along the coast, reaching the mouth of the Calycadnus River. At the mouth of the Calycadnus was the town of Hormoi (now Slifke). [56]
From Hormoi, he advanced his army upstream along the Calycadnus River, aiming to establish a base for punitive operations. It is stated that the operation to subdue Cilicia Trachea took seven days, but it is not clear from this sentence whether it was the period from the departure of Soloi to its return, or whether it was the actual number of days it took to subdue it without including the number of days along the way. [57]
However, if it is the former, it is far too short compared to the 10 days it took to subdue the Arabians during the capture of Tyre and the 30 days it took to subdue the hill dwellers in the Zagrus mountains such as Mardoi during Persepolis. [58]
The conquest of the Arabians was the conquest of a bandit with a foothold in Antilibanos, and while it took only one day to reach the area of operation, it took six days each way to reach the area of operation at Cilicia Trachea, and after all, seven days seems more appropriate as the number of days required for the actual conquest. From now on, I would like to use that judgment to estimate the actions of the mountains punitive force.
The base of the punitive campaign would be Laranda (now Karaman), the center of the Pisidia region.
Laranda was the town where Balakros, later appointed satrap of Cilicia by Alexandros, was killed in battle trying to suppress the rebellion, and from Laranda there is a road connecting Iconion and the town of Tada, just before the Cilicia Gate, through which Cyrus the Younger's forces passed. [59]
Accompanied by the wife of Cilician satrap, who was returning to Tarsos after meeting Cyrus the Younger separately from the main unit of Cyrus the Younger, a unit led by Menon, a Thessalian, arrives at Tarsos by a shortcut over the Tauros Mountains. [60]
Cyrus the Younger, using the regular route, had a nine-day march, a four-day break, and arrived at Tarsos on day 13, but Menon arrived five days earlier, so it was probably an eight-day journey. [61]
From where Menon parted with Cyrus the Younger, it takes one day to get to Laranda, three days from Hormoi over the mountain to Tarsos, and four days from Laranda to Hormoi. On his way, Menon was attacked by bandits and marched hurriedly, feeling the enemy behind him. [62]
From Hormoi to Laranda, it is also a 1,600 m ascent from the coastline, and it is considered to be a normal march to enemy territory, taking six days. The return journey is estimated to take five days.
They took control of Cilicia Trachea by force or by agreement for seven days around Laranda. Menon of Cyrus the Younger forces passed through the region with 1,000 heavy infantry and 500 light infantry, losing 100 heavy infantry along the way. [63]
Along with Laranda, the Pisidia regions, such as Derbe and Isaura, were home to bandits who roosted in caves high in the Tauros Mountains even in Roman times, and there were many pirate forts along the Mediterranean coast. [64]
It is estimated that the Mountains punitive force arrived in Soloi from Laranda via Hormoi on October 16th.
7. Thymondas Greek Mercenary Corps
Orders from Darius were delivered to Pharnabazos and Thymondas respectively. The directive is estimated to have arrived on August 16th, 16 days after Darius' policy decision date.
Pharnabazos, commander of the Persian Imperial Fleet who succeeded Memnon, was carrying out a strategy to turn the islands of the Aegean Sea back to the Persian side and cut off the supply routes of Alexandros' army. However, Mitylene of Lesbos resisted stubbornly, and he laid siege to the town.
Pharnabazos hastened to make a pact with the citizens of Mitylene, which resulted in the fall of Mitylene. [65]
The date of the fall is presumed to be September 9th, counting back from the date Darius arrived at Sochoi and the date Soloi was informed of Ptolemy's victory.
Shortly after this he sailed to Lycia to hand over many of the Greek mercenaries engaged in the siege to Mentor's son Thymondas. [66]
The distance between Lesbos and Lycia is about 620 km.
Nearchos, the son of Androtimos, traveled about 75km in one day on his Indian Ocean voyage. Therefore, assuming that the journey will take 13 days (Large break 4 days), it is estimated that the flight will leave Lesbos on September 11th and arrive in Lycia on September 24th.
Meanwhile, Thymondas, who was in Lycia, also received orders from Darius to gather together a Greek mercenary force on resistance in Karia and elsewhere, and wait for Pharnabazos in Lycia. When he received from Pharnabazos a unit of Greek mercenaries on Lesbos, he went to Tripolis in Phoenicia by sea with the mercenaries he had raked up. The distance between Lycia and Tripolis is about 520 km. It takes 10 days (Large break 3 days) if he stop at Cyprus on the way.
Thymondas landed in Tripolis on October 4th. [67]
From there, he headed further overland to Sochoi. The distance between Tripolis and Sochoi is about 295 km.
Because Thymondas' forces were heavily armed, Sochoi's arrival is estimated to be October 19th, assuming that it took 15 days (Large break 3 days). [68].
As a result, the Persian resistance forces of Halikarnassos in Karia were annihilated for the remaining forces of the Alexandros army. [69]
Ptolemy sent many of his garrisons to Issus to take part in the decisive battle against the Darius forces.
8. Soloi Departure of the Alexandros Army
The subjugation of Cilicia Trachea was deeply related to the movements of Asia Minor, which was still not in complete control. This operation was different in nature from a simple punitive expedition against bandits, such as the one to subdue the Arabians during the siege of Tyre, and the main objective might have been to support the flank of the allied forces during the ongoing campaign to capture resistance cities in Asia Minor. [70]
It seems that the cities were closely connected, as relief forces rushed in from the Pisidian town of Telmissos when the Pisidian town of Sagalassos was under attack by the Alexandros army, and it would have been very effective for the Mountains punitive force to hit the stronghold directly from the Cilicia side during this period. [71]
While it may not be known or true where they actually sent their support troops from Laranda or Isaura, the reality is that if they were attacked extensively at the same time, they would not be able to seek relief or escape elsewhere.
In addition, although the advance of the Alexandros forces from Phrygia across the Tauros Mountains to Cilicia was made possible by the death of Memnon, who had contributed greatly to the Persian Empire's control over the western side, it did not wipe out the resistance forces on the Persian side, and some of the major cities and islands along the Asia Minor coast, which would serve as a supply base for the Persian Navy, were resisting the Alexandros forces, and it would have been strategically impossible to leave Cilicia until they were completely overrun. Shortly after their return to Soloi came reports that Ptolemy and others had defeated the Persians, led by Orontobates, Karian satrap. [72]
This was what Alexandros has been waiting for. Although not completely pacified, the Asia Minor was expected to slaughter 700 infantrymen and 50 cavalrymen and take over 1,000 prisoners, so that any apparent resistance would disappear for some time. [73]
The defeated Orontobates escaped to Babylon and commanded the Persian forces at Gaugamela, but it seems they were too late for the Battle of Issus. [74]
Alexandros himself may not actually have expeditioned for the Cilicia Mountains subjugation. He may have been recuperating at Soloi. For the march of troops to the Cilicia Mountains only conveys the fact that Arrianus alone took place, and in Soloi to thank Asclepius, the god of medicine, for recovering from his illness and regaining health. because they are making sacrifices. In Soloi, review ceremonies, torch competitions, physical education competitions, etc. are held to raise the morale of the soldiers and enhance their physical strength. [75]
Although it is not recorded in the historical materials, it is quite possible that Alexandros visited the sanctuary of Zeus in the town of Orbe on the mountain side near Soloi. It also meant the last big break before. [76]
Soloi departure would be October 19th, estimated 13 days before the Basis Date 2.
Alexandros sends the Philotas cavalry from Soloi to build a bridge over the Pyramos River, which will be crossed near Mallos. [77]
The hoplites and other main forces headed straight for Mallos, but this time they took hostages the inhabitants of Soloi, who might have sided with Darius and attacked from behind. [78]
A bodyguard of infantry and cavalry, led by Alexandros himself, stopped at the town of Magarsos and made a sacrifice to the Magarsian Athena, god of war, of justice and strategy, before heading for Mallos. Arrival at Mallos is estimated on October 23rd. [79]
9. Arrival of the Darius army in Sochoi and Alexandros' strategy
They joined the main unit and the Philotas cavalry at Mallos and performed sacrifices for the hero god Amphilochus, who died fighting Apollo on the nearby Aleian Plain. [80]
The circumstances of Darius's arrival in Sochoi are not documented in historical sources and details are unknown, but Alexandros learned of it while he was in Mallos. The Parmenion courier reports that Darius is encamped in Sochoi, two days from the Syrian Gates. [81]
Based on this, Darius' arrival in Sochi is estimated to be October 9th.
So where did they get the information on Darius' arrival in Sochi? Did he hear it from the mouth of a merchant who was able to pass through the Syrian Gates, which was completely closed by the garrisons of both armies? Both armies were accompanied by military merchants, and it seems that shops were also opened in the army, so that merchants might have been able to pass freely through the barrier gates. [82]
Or were they informed by unclosed sea routes? Myriandrus, two days south of Issus, appears to have been a commercial center and a port city for the Phoenicians with a large number of merchant ships in and out, and letters from outside. [83]
But rather than relying on these unreliable sources, Alexandros would have dispatched trusted soldiers to monitor Darius' approach. Later, Alexandros made possible the impossible in Sogdiana, such as climbing sheer rocks, and capturing Aornos, which was said to be impregnable. [84]
Alexandros' scouts would have watched from a 1,600m peak near the Syrian Gates, or even crossed the mountain via animal trails.
What kind of strategy did Alexandros make after receiving news of Darius' arrival in Sochoi?
What matters here is whether Alexandros "knew about the Amanos Gate." The 'Amanos Gate' may be interpreted as the Bahce Pass, as described below, or the Hasanbeyli Pass a little further south, but it may be better described as a derelict pass between mountains about 300 m high on the east side of Toprakkale, a day's journey north of the town of Issus.
For Curtius tells us that it was on the same night that Alexandros entered Syria through the Pillar of Jonah and Darius reached the Gate of Amanos. [85]
If they identified the Bahce or Hasanbeyli passes as the "Amanos Gate," the Alexandros would have to stay near Myriandrus for about five days. Unlike previous versions of the Cilician gates, Pillar of Jonah, and the Syrian Gates, which had several retractable gates on their walls and garrisons to keep the enemy from entering, the Amanos Gate may not have had such a facility and was just a defile.
However, as long as it was named "Gate," it must have been located on a major traffic route from ancient times with heavy traffic. It's hard to imagine Parmenion missing out after spending nearly three months searching the region for " defiles." [86]
The inhabitants of Issus had forsaken the few Macedonians and provided food and other supplies to the Persian army. [87]
But that was after Darius had brought a large army to the town of Issus, suggesting that at first they were favouring the Alexandros army. They also apparently cooperated with Parmenion, who was exploring the defile. What we can say with certainty here is that Alexandros was aware of the existence of "the Amanos Gate."
But if he didn't know, Alexandros probably thought of one of two.
(1) Intercept at the Syrian Gates
To intercept a large army with the Syrian Gates as a barrier. There are two big negatives to this.
First of all, this operation is meaningless if the enemy does not attack. Also, it would be unthinkable given Alexandros' aggressive and resolute personality.
Second, and I think the crucial factor, is that Darius himself is very likely to get away with it.
(2) Attack Darius across the Syrian Gates
Surprise Darius encamped at Sochoi across the Syrian Gates. There are also two negatives to this.
First of all, it completely ignores Curtius, who reports that the council decided to wait for the enemy in "the defiles of the mountains." [88]
Secondly, Arrianus is said to have been stopped by the occasional storm, but later in the Battle of Porus in India, despite the heavy rain accompanied by thunder, he managed to cross the river Hydaspes and made a successful surprise attack. It is inconceivable that Alexandros did not take advantage of the bad weather. [89]
Next, what if he "knew" the existence of the Amanos Gate? Again, the question is whether he knew that Darius' army had left Sochoi for the Amanos Gate. If he "didn't know" about Sochoi's departure, Alexandros thought one of two.
One is when he never expected the enemy to come from the Amanos Gate, but the strategy would be similar to the above-mentioned case of "not knowing" the existence of the Amanos Gate.
Second, if he cross the "Pillar of Jonah" and exit into Syria, anticipating the enemy coming from the Amanos Gate, it will be the same as "the Last Remaining Strategy" described below.
Finally, what if we knew of the existence of the Amanos Gate and of the enemy coming from that direction? There are also two options for this.
One is to cross the Syrian Gates, where Alexandros' forces, in high spirits to engage Darius, would not go where they already knew the enemy's main force was clear.
The second is "the Last Remaining Strategy". In other words, he learned that Darius' army was about to enter Issus through the Amanos Gate, crossed the Pillar of Jonah into Syria, and he expected Darius' army to camp in front of the barrier before crossing the Pillar of Jonah, and it was a strategy to challenge Darius in the isthmus of Issus.
Alexandros convenes a conference at Mallos to announce the arrival of Darius' army in Sochoi and to raise the morale of the army. [90]
In addition, Alexandros joined Parmenion in the town of Castabalum on the north side of Issus Bay and received a detailed report on the situation near Issus. [91]
The council discussed whether to proceed further in the next town of Issus. [92]
At that meeting, Parmenion, who had been searching the surrounding area for nearly three months, offered his opinion, proposing that the "defiles" was the most suitable place to intercept Darius' army, and was adopted. [93]
In the records of Arrianus, Curtius, and others, there are passages in which Parmenion gives his opinion on operations, but these are often rejected by Alexandros. However, the adoption of the opinion that this "defiles" is decided on the battlefield is peculiar, and on the contrary, it seems to be extremely credible. The "defiles" suggested by Parmenion can be compared to the "Pillar of Jonah" and "the Syrian Gates."
However, it is not appropriate because there is no record that the checkpoint was chosen as the place of confrontation even when looking at the character of Alexandros, who longed for a direct confrontation with Darius, and the progress of the eastern expedition. There is no doubt that the "defiles" here refers to the "Issus Isthmus" which is only 14 stadia (about 2.59 km) wide. We can also understand from the fact that the decisive battle was to be held at "the defiles" that Alexandros prayed for when he heard the scouts' report that Darius' army had advanced near Issus. [94]
However, it seems to contradict this presumption that several Macedonian wounded were left behind in the town of Issus, where the enemy knew to be imminent. It is possible that Alexandros, upon receiving word of the departure of Darius' forces from Sochoi, misread the enemy's estimated date of arrival in Issus. It is said that Alexandros was surprised by the advance of Darius' army on Issus. The arrival of the Darius army may have been so unexpectedly early that the wounded, who were supposed to follow the main force, did not arrive in time. [95]
10. The Dangers of Alexandros' Strategy
There have been three battles in history named "Battle of Issus".
The second, in 194 AD, was a battle between Severus and Niger, governor of Syria, for the position of Roman emperor. Severus' forces advanced from the west and defeated the Niger forces in two places in the Asia Minor. He continued on to Cilicia and met with the Niger army near a place called the Gate. It seems to refer to the "Pillar of Jonah", the defile between Issus and Myriandrus.
"A cliff on one side and a cliff that drops into the sea on the other," said the Roman historian Dio Cassius, not "the Syrian Gates," a defile in the Amanos Mountains. The Severus army, coming from the direction of Issus in the north, clashes with the Niger army, which is positioned on a small hill in front of the Pillar of Jonah. Both armies had heavy infantry in the front row and light infantry such as archers in the back row, and it was a battle where the one who overwhelmed the enemy in a narrow space won.
At first, the Niger forces had the upper hand due to superiority in numbers and location, but a sudden thunderstorm accompanied by a northerly wind struck the Niger forces, turning Severus into victorious. The Niger army was overwhelmed by the Severus army and abandoned the battlefield, fleeing towards Syria. [96]
For the third time, in 622 AD, the Eastern Roman emperor Heraclius, during his campaign against Sassanid Persia, clashed near Issus with Persian forces trying to stop the invasion. The Persians await near Issus as Heraclius advances across the Tauros Mountains. Heraclius was victorious when the Persian army was pushed behind him by troops landed from his fleet. The landing site is thought to be Myriandrus. Heraclius, whose father was a governor of Carthage, led a fleet from Carthage to dethrone the previous emperor, making good use of his naval power.
In both cases, the side that tried to move out of Cilicia towards Syria, like Alexandros' army, won. However, considering the lineup, it was the opposite of Alexandros' case. In other words, the winner was located on the north side. So why did Alexandros leave "Pillar of Jonah" for Syria once? I think there was a deep reading of Alexandros in this. The field of Issus, the battlefield, is an isthmus between the Amanos Mountains and the Issus Bay, forming an inverted triangle when viewed from the north.
In a real battle, Alexandros' forces move from the lower apex to the upper base, gradually spreading their wings left and right toward Darius' forces. If this were the other way around, Darius' army, much more numerous, would find it easier and easier to encircle the enemy from the left and right, and would be extremely disadvantageous to the army of Alexandros, who would most likely be surrounded and destroyed.
The reversed formation on Issus was a careful calculation by Alexandros, who was absolutely confident in the destructive power of the Hetairoi cavalry and the Macedonian massed infantry.
